Migrant workers at the bottom of the labor 

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According to Saskia Sassen's (1991) Global City theory, the global economy is driven by these cities. Global Cities are characterized by a concentration of headquarters, financial institutions, legal and consulting services, and knowledge-intensive companies. While a Global City's position relies on highly educated, internationally oriented professionals, it cannot function without a large number of low-wage workers who keep urban life running. This increases inequality within the city (Sassen, 1991).

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Amsterdam is a "global city" because it hosts a large number of headquarters, international consultancy firms, and law firms, and a significant portion of global financial flows pass through Amsterdam (Janssen, 2022). At the same time, the lower end of the labor market is large, making inequality visible in the Amsterdam labor market. At the lower end of the labor market, there are a large number of migrant workers. They come to the city because there is a large supply of low-wage work in sectors such as cleaning, logistics, hospitality, healthcare, and personal services. Due to high housing costs, a significant portion of this group will relocate outside the city, but they are economically active in Amsterdam's labor market. This report therefore examines both the city of Amsterdam and the Amsterdam Metropolitan Region (MRA) to better understand the position and circumstances of these low-wage workers within the city/region's development and within the broader urban and global economic system.

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Portraying low-income migrant workers

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Migrants are people who have settled in the Netherlands in the past 10 years. As of January 1, 2023, the Amsterdam Metropolitan Region (MRA) has approximately 16,700 low-wage migrant workers. This category, also known as "potentially vulnerable migrant workers," includes migrant workers with an annual income of up to €23,841 (Municipality of Amsterdam et al., 2025). The low-paid migrant workers shown in the figures earn on average less than half of what the majority of working migrant workers (including expats) in Amsterdam earn. An estimated 1 million low-paid migrant workers work in the Netherlands, which is approximately 10% of all workers in the Netherlands (Vermeulen, 2025). Figure 1 shows the income distribution of all migrant workers in the Amsterdam Metropolitan Region (MRA). This shows that the low-paid group represents 16% of the total. The share of low-wage earners is highest among EU migrant workers. Low-wage migrant workers without EU nationality may have more difficulty settling in the Netherlands, but it is possible. They may, for example, come from a country where no visa is required to travel to the Netherlands, or they may enter the Netherlands as asylum seekers and, after being granted asylum (status holders), work for a low income. An unknown number of low-wage migrant workers are likely undocumented and therefore are not included in the figures. According to an estimate by the Scientific Research and Documentation Center, 15,000 undocumented immigrants are living in Amsterdam (Municipality of Amsterdam, n.d.). Of all low-paid migrant workers in the MRA, 61% live in Amsterdam; the remaining group resides in surrounding municipalities, particularly in Zaanstad (1,180), Almere (860), Haarlem (750), Haarlemmermeer (510), and Amstelveen (510) (El Moussaoui et al., 2025).

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Spatial distribution

It's striking that the majority of officially registered low-wage migrant workers live in Amsterdam, even though private sector rents are highest in Amsterdam and the waiting list for social housing is longest there. The distribution within Amsterdam is further illustrated in Figure 2, which shows the neighborhoods where this group settles most frequently. Bijlmer-Oost tops the list with 530 registered low-wage migrant workers. Half of the 20 Amsterdam neighborhoods with the most low-wage migrant workers are in Nieuw-West. This is based on registrations in the Municipal Personal Records Database (BRP), while some are likely not registered there.

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Work situation

The sectors where low-paid EU/EFTA migrant workers work are listed in Figure 3; however, this does not reveal anything about their position within these sectors. Furthermore, the sector in which a large proportion of migrant workers work is unknown, so this remaining group (46.5%) is not included in the figure. The fact that this group is so large means that they are partly working under the radar, which may indicate a precarious employment situation.

 

 

 

 

 

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The most prominent sector within this group is "Rental of movable property and other business services," which includes the rental of vehicles and equipment, as well as cleaning services and call centers. Another high-ranking sector is restaurants (and hotel-restaurants). Low-paid migrant workers from outside the EU work in roughly the same sectors as those from within the EU, with only "Fast-food restaurants, cafeterias, ice cream parlors, food stalls, etc." ranking significantly higher. Temporary employment agencies have a poor reputation when it comes to the position of low-paid migrant workers due to underpayment, poor housing, and intimidation (Vermeulen, 2025).

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Personal characteristics 

Nationalities

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The pre-assumption that most low-paid migrant workers come from Eastern Europe is not entirely accurate according to these figures. Figure 4 above shows that at least 3,730 low-paid migrant workers come from Eastern Europe, 2,390 from Southern Europe, and a large number from outside the EU, namely 4,170. From outside the EU, the largest group is British, most likely British who settled here before Brexit. However, other nationalities are high on the list, such as American, Turkish, Ghanaian, Chinese, Brazilian, and Indian. They may have entered the Netherlands as students with a work permit or as asylum seekers who have been granted asylum. Another option is seasonal employment through an employer with a work permit. This is officially only permitted if there are no suitable EU workers available (UWV, 2025). Besides registering with the Municipal Personal Records Database (BRP), there is also the Non-Resident Registration (RNI). This registration scheme has been in effect since 2012. Migrant workers from within the EU and outside the EU who want to work here for less than four months as employees, for example, as seasonal workers, can register here. This allows them to immediately obtain a citizen service number (BSN), open a bank account, and legally work here. All that is required for RNI registration is a valid identity document (Municipality of Amsterdam et al., 2025).

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Age and demographic characteristics 

Figure 6 shows that the majority of low-paid migrant workers

in Amsterdam are under 35 years old. Only in the "no longer

working" category is the majority of low-paid migrant workers

over 36. It is also known that the share of those under 26

from the EU is higher in Amsterdam than in the rest of the

MRA, namely 10% more. ​​​

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Length of stay and registration status

Figure 7 shows that the largest group of low-paid migrant workers has a residence period of 0 to 3 years in Amsterdam. The share arriving from the EU within this 0 to 3-year period (46.3%) is higher than among non-EU migrant workers (38%). Because low-paid migrant workers from within the EU can also find low-paid work in other EU countries, they are more likely to leave the Netherlands. Low-paid migrant workers from outside the EU have far fewer opportunities to settle here, so they are likely to stay longer.

 

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​Figure 8 below shows that the number of low-paid migrant workers registered with the Municipal Personal Records Database (BRP) in the Amsterdam Metropolitan Region (MRA) is lower than the number registered with the National Register of Nationals (RNI). It's striking that the reverse is true in the municipality of Amsterdam; more low-paid migrant workers are registered with the Municipal Personal Records Database (BRP) than with the National Register of Nationals (RNI). Figure 8 indicates that low-paid migrant workers from within the EU are also registered with the RNI. They apparently find it easier to find housing in the region than in Amsterdam, perhaps due to their more precarious situation than those registered with the National Register of Nationals.

 

The Non-Registered Register is no longer updated after registration. Therefore, it is unknown what happens: whether people have left the country or are still here. Because this is unknown, the reality of the figures and figures above is questionable. For example, those registered under the RNI (Register of Non-Registered Persons) are not included in Figure 7 because their length of stay is not tracked. This has largely lost control of the labor market for low-wage earners. Furthermore, the long waiting times at the Amsterdam RNI office may result in lower registrations (Municipality of Amsterdam et al., 2025).

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​The question that arises from these data is how it is possible that such a large number of low-paid migrant workers from outside the EU are settled in Amsterdam. For them, obtaining a residence permit is very difficult. What role does the RNI play in this? According to the Labor Inspectorate, the RNI is being abused to circumvent labor laws (Kuiper & Kouwenhoven, 2025).

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Other issues

The most vulnerable group among low-paid migrant workers are the undocumented. Their position in both the labor market and the housing market is extremely precarious. They have little access to basic services and are at risk of deportation. Yet, they also play a vital role in Amsterdam's economy, from working in restaurant kitchens to babysitting and cleaning jobs.

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The number of distribution centers on the outskirts of Amsterdam and in the surrounding region has grown enormously over the past decade. Thousands of low-paid migrant workers work here. Some of them work through temporary employment agencies, of which 15,000 are now active in the Netherlands (CBS StatLine, 2025). Some of these agencies circumvent Dutch labor laws in various ways, and their compliance is virtually impossible to monitor (Kuiper & Kouwenhoven, 2025). 

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References

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CBS StatLine. (2025, 17 oktober). Bedrijven; bedrijfstak. opendata.cbs. https://opendata.cbs.nl/#/CBS/nl/dataset/81589ned/table?dl=2FAD8

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El Moussaoui, N., Smits, A., Tepic, M., & Cohen, L. (2025). Laagbetaalde arbeidsmigranten in de Metropoolregio Amsterdam - CONCEPT. Gemeente Amsterdam Onderzoek en Statistiek. https://openresearch.amsterdam/nl/page/120916/arbeidsmigratie-in-amsterdam

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Gemeente Amsterdam. (z.d.). Ongedocumenteerden. amsterdam.nl. https://www.amsterdam.nl/zorg-en-ondersteuning/ondersteuning/vluchtelingen/ongedocumenteerden/#hc7ef970e-b5f5-4663-b035-46a41825d3d5

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Gemeente Amsterdam, Werkgroep Arbeidsmigranten, & Bureau Andersson Elffers Felix. (2025). Arbeidsmigratie in Amsterdam. openresearch.amsterdam. https://openresearch.amsterdam/nl/page/120916/arbeidsmigratie-in-amsterdam

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Janssen, R. (2022). Gokkers en graaiers: Financiële schandalen van de VOC tot de Zuidas. Follow the Money.

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Kuiper, M., & Kouwenhoven, A. (2025, 13 oktober). Honderden Georgiërs werken illegaal in hotels door “gat” in systeem. NRC.

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Sassen, S. (1991). The Global City.

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UWV. (2025, 30 juni). Tewerkstellingsvergunning aanvragen. https://www.uwv.nl/nl/werkvergunning/twv-aanvragen

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Vermeulen, S. (2025, 3 november). “Uitzendlobby at work”? Minister Paul had meteen al twijfels over verbod. NRC, 8–9.